Where We Came From

Truly the time period between 1850 and 1910 was a tumultuous one for science and for the political processes of the United States and other Western Countries. However, in the field of anthropology the debates were just beginning to start. In the years that surrounded the Neandertal finds, the debate on human origins was comparatively simple to the debate that would ensue. The story from this point gets quite complex.

By 1830 it was becoming clear that evolution was a idea that would eventually spring forward to explain mankind’s arrival on the planet. However, most scientists at the time would simple not agree with this concept. The head defender of creationism was a talented anatomist named Sir Richard Owen. His position in science was so revered, that when Darwin had returned from his worldly voyages, he asked Owen to evaluate his samples. Owen did. For a short time Darwin was only confused by his finds. Owen stated the samples of exotic animals were only extinct variations of animals that presently live in South America. Poor record keeping with regard to location created further confusion with his bird samples. If Darwin was to announce his concept of evolution, he was certainly not ready to do it then. With such disdain of the idea held by Owen and with the weaknesses of poor recorded keeping Darwin felt it wise to keep his thoughts to himself. At the same time Darwin was sketching trees in his notebook that clearly depicted old species changing into new ones. So radical and controversial was his concept of evolution that Darwin himself began to have heart palpitations, stomachaches and night terrors during sleep. At the time Darwin published privately:

"It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another. People often talk of the wonderful event of intellectual Man appearing – the appearance of insects with other senses is more wonderful… Who with the face of the earth, covered with the most beautiful savannas and forests dare say that intellectuality is the only aim in the world?"


Thomas Huxley on the other hand felt the scientific information was there to begin the discussion of evolution. Huxley unlike Darwin was willing to confront Owens and other scientist that clung to the concept of Man being the dominant creation ordained by God. While Huxley debated with Owens for more than 20 years, Darwin expanded his research. First Darwin began with pigeons then oysters and other mollusks. In 1859 Charles Darwin is credited with publishing his famous work "On the Origins of the Species". However, publishing this document was only done when Darwin realized that if he did not do it, Alfred Russel Wallace would. Wallace was a young anatomist that had read many of the same pieces of literature that Darwin, and Huxley had read and agreed with. Furthermore, Wallace had also read much of Darwin’s work and was in contact with Darwin during his travel. When Darwin realized that Wallace was about to publish a discussion on evolution, Darwin realized it was time to present his fastidious research. After 20 years of virtual silence on the topic, Darwin released a bombshell on society. With the work so well researched and document only one scientist was able to provide any form of refute.

Many scientists attacked Darwin’s position. The overwhelming evidence in the writings led to very spirited discussions and by the 1870’s virtually all scientist had come to agree that Darwin was correct in his basic thoughts on evolution. This did not preclude scientists from disagreeing with how the evolution had occurred. Amazingly enough the one scientist that could refute Darwin’s position was not an anatomist but rather a leading Physicist of the time - Lord Kelvin. William Thomson Kelvin was a leader in Thermodynamics research. Today Physics still teach the Kelvin temperature scale and many of the principles Lord Kelvin developed. His contributions, were in many cases so significant and well developed, they have endured 150 plus years without change. Kelvin used his theories to determine the rate of heat transfer. With that information Kelvin determined the thermal flow of temperature within the Earth. In 1862, Kelvin used strong scientific evidence to show that the Earth could be no more than 100 million years old. His final estimate was almost reduced to 20 million years. Darwin had gone to great length to use geology to show that natural selection would occur over a time much greater than that demonstrated by Kelvin. Given the detail provided by Darwin and the requirement for the extended periods trouble began to brew with how evolution had taken place. Kelvin’s research at best completely refuted Darwin’s argument and at worst demonstrated some form of higher being influence in a rapid change. Darwin died a recluse, bitter about religion and seemingly defeated in his theory. Despite all this his position in science was high enough that he was buried in the court yard of West Minister Abbey near Isaac Newton.

The fight was not over with Darwin’s death. Fourteen years after Darwin’s death a physicist, Henri Becqueral, conducted research regarding radiation. Seven years later the famous Marie Curie and her husband published the ramifications of that research. Lord Kelvin had published his results based on the theory that the Earth had no source of heat. He was wrong. Coupled with the help of Rutherford and Patterson, an exposure of the Acasta rocks in the Northwest Territories of Canada and a meteor crater in Arizona, we now speculate the earth’s age to be roughly 4.55 billion years old. These numbers are commensurate with the research done by Darwin.

Although this may seem to be a detailed discussion on evolution and not a discussion on the political ramifications of racial classification some critical insight is available within these thoughts.

First, let us again review the concept of specificity versus generality in scientific assessment. Although Owen had gone to great length to explain taxonomic differences he could not obtain a most general case example for the theory we now know as evolution or natural selection. Despite Owens resources and availability to information, he was unwilling to "call the emperor naked".

Secondly, despite recognizing the "emperor naked", Darwin spent years to prove it before announcing it. Once it was proven, those unwilling to accept the theory, such as Kelvin created hurried theories to seemingly clothe the emperor. It would take almost 70 years of research and argument before virtually all members of the science area would accept the basis of the information. One hundred years later court cases declared the information acceptable for the classroom. Almost 150 years later, the conversation will still create disdain amongst some groups. It is interesting to note that while researching information for this section, I personally checked out a book from the local county library. On every picture of Darwin within that book, someone had drawn "666" and an upside down cross on his forehead.

Thirdly, it is interesting to note the quote made by Darwin in his writings. "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another… Who with the face of the earth, covered with the most beautiful savannas and forests dare say that intellectuality is the only aim in the world?" In a future segment called do we really want to climb this tree, I will use this quote to provide an odd but I think effective refute to cranial volume and intellectual correlation.

The forth and final point that we will now expand on is the information regarding Wallace, Owen, and Huxley. Unknowingly, I believe these three men provided much of the intellectual impetus that justified racial classification